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Encyclopedia - SALAMANDER - Article and Image
Salamander is a common name of approximately 500 species of amphibians. They are typically characterized by slender bodies, short noses, and long tails. All known fossils and extinct species fall under the order Caudata, while sometimes the extant species are grouped together as the Urodela.[1] Most salamanders have four front toes and five rear toes. Their moist skin usually makes them reliant on habitats in or near water, or under some protection (e.g., moist ground), often in a wetland. Some salamander species are fully aquatic throughout life, some take to the water intermittently, and some are entirely terrestrial as adults. Uniquely among vertebrates, they are capable of regenerating lost limbs, as well as other body parts.
Range and Habitat of Salamanders
Salamanders are found throughout much of the world at altitudes up to 4,000 m (13,000 ft). In the western hemisphere their range spreads across the United States and Canada and extends south through Central America to the northern portion of South America. Salamanders also live in Europe, the Mediterranean area, Africa, and Asia, including the islands of Japan and Taiwan. Salamanders are not found in Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, Madagascar, or Antarctica.
Physical Characteristics of Salamanders
An adult salamander has a slender, elongated body with a long tail, and in most cases, two pairs of legs roughly equal in size. Most salamanders are drab in color, but some, such as fire salamanders, have brilliant yellow, orange, or red markings. The majority of salamanders measure 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) in length, but the smallest known salamander reaches just 2.7 cm (1.1 in), and the Japanese giant salamander grows to 1.5 m (5 ft).
Those salamanders that spend all or part of their lives on land tend to be slight, with small heads, slender bodies, and a sprawling gait that comes from moving the two legs that are diagonally opposite one another at the same time. Aquatic salamanders, such as the amphiuma, are usually larger, and they often have reduced limbs. Some aquatic salamanders, such as the greater siren, have no hind legs at all. The front limbs of most species end in four fingers, and the rear limbs typically end in five toes. Like other amphibians, salamanders do not have claws. Some salamanders can force their ribs through their skin to act as protective barbs, providing a defense against predators.
Salamanders are the only amphibians that have long tails as adults. They use these tails, which are often as long as their bodies, for balance in walking and propulsion in swimming. Many salamanders can shed their tails if a predator threatens them. Once shed, the tail reflexively flails about on the ground and distracts the would-be predator while the salamander slips away and later regenerates a new tail.
Salamanders are also able to regrow limbs that are lost or injured. Scientists are studying the genetic and hormonal processes that allow salamanders to regenerate body parts such as jaws, spinal cords, and brain parts in addition to tails and limbs. Because some of the same genes are present in humans, research into salamanders could lead to medical treatments that would allow humans to regrow or repair damaged organs and limbs.
Like all amphibians, salamanders have delicate, permeable skin through which water and gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, can enter and leave the body. Most adult salamanders have saclike lungs for breathing air and use their permeable skin only as a source of supplemental oxygen. Some species never develop lungs and instead obtain oxygen through gills or through their skin and the mucous membranes of their mouths and throats. Salamanders also have glands in the skin that secrete a thick layer of mucus. On land, this mucus prevents the skin from drying out, and in water, it helps maintain the correct balance of salt and water in salamanders’ body fluids. Other glands in salamander skin secrete toxic poisons. Salamanders equipped with poison-producing skin glands often display bright colors and conspicuous markings, possibly to warn predators that they are poisonous to the touch. Male salamanders commonly have skin glands that produce scent-emitting chemicals called pheromones that play a role in courtship and mating.
Most salamanders have well-developed eyes. They also have nasal sensory organs capable of detecting chemical changes in the environment. These nasal organs serve an important function in feeding, courtship, and locating breeding sites. Their sense of hearing is poor, and salamanders rarely make noise, although some species are known to make faint squeaks or yelps when excited or disturbed.
Diet of Salamanders
Most salamanders are carnivorous—that is, they eat other animals rather than plants. Adult salamanders that live in water prey on the larvae of frogs, known as tadpoles, and various invertebrates, including snails and worms. Some also eat small fish. These salamanders locate prey by smell and ingest it by opening their mouths in the water and sucking in their prey.
Terrestrial salamanders rely on vision to find food. Most are solitary, sit-and-wait opportunists that eat soft-bodied invertebrates, including insects, slugs, and worms. When one of these prey animals unwittingly comes within reach, the salamander rolls its fleshy, sticky tongue out of its mouth to snatch it up. Some tropical salamanders have projectile tongues that they can extrude from their mouths for distances equal to 40 to 80 percent of their total body length to snap up unsuspecting prey.
Many salamanders are nocturnal—that is, they do most of their hunting in the cool, dark hours of night and remain inactive during the day. Those that are active during daylight retreat to the cool depths of bushes and other ground cover during the hottest period of the day. Some groups are active only during certain seasons. When conditions are too cold or too dry for them to muster the energy necessary to find food, these salamanders enter a resting state similar to hibernation. The siren spends much of its time burrowed in the muddy bottom of seasonal ponds and ditches that dry up in the heat of the summer. When the mud and sand starts to dry, the mucous coating on its skin hardens to form a protective cocoon, which enables the siren to survive out of water for many weeks.
Reproduction in Salamanders
For many types of salamanders, mating begins with complex courtship behavior. Some terrestrial male salamanders create scent trails to attract females. Among lungless salamanders of the western hemisphere, males initiate courtship by using their chins to rub the heads of females. As they rub, they secrete chemicals that stimulate the female. Among European newts, such as the crested newt, courtship takes place in water, and during the mating season, males acquire bright colors and intricate tail fins to attract mates.
Among most salamanders, fertilization occurs internally, meaning the egg and sperm unite inside the female’s body. During mating, salamanders use the cloaca, a chamber that opens into the animal’s digestive and urinary tracts as well as their reproductive tracts. Mating pairs of salamanders may position themselves with the muscular openings of their cloacae touching so that the male can transfer sperm directly to the female. Among many terrestrial and aquatic salamanders, males release one or more sperm-filled capsules called spermatophores onto the ground, then attempt to induce a female to pick up the spermatophores with the opening of her cloaca.
Among some very ancient types of salamanders, including hellbenders, fertilization is external. Females of these species deposit eggs in sacs or strings in the water. Male hellbenders release their sperm over the eggs to fertilize them, then guard the eggs until they hatch.
Among salamanders that have internal fertilization, females may either deposit their eggs on land or in water or, as in the fire salamander, retain the eggs within their bodies, eventually giving birth to live young. Among tiger salamanders, females lay eggs in clutches of up to 500 eggs in streams or ponds. Females of other species lay eggs singly or in small clutches at terrestrial sites, such as in rotting logs. Females that lay small clutches typically protect their eggs from hungry predators until hatching occurs.
Life Cycle of Salamanders
The life cycle of salamanders varies greatly among species. All salamanders have a larval stage in which they have external, feathery gills for breathing in water. Among salamanders that lay their eggs on land, the larval stage occurs inside the egg. In salamanders that give birth to live young, the larval stage takes place within the body of the mother. Only some salamander larvae actually live in a body of water such as a pond or stream.
Many salamander larvae undergo a transformation called metamorphosis, in which their bodies change in ways that make them better suited to life on land than life in the water. During metamorphosis, the larvae of most species lose their gills and acquire a pair of saclike lungs. The heart transforms from the two-chambered heart needed to support gills to a three-chambered heart capable of supporting lungs. The larvae also grow limbs, eyelids, and well-developed tongues.
Many larvae undergo metamorphosis in two or three months. Some, including hellbenders, take up to five years to mature. Many salamanders, including mud puppies, undergo partial metamorphosis and as adults retain some larval characteristics, such as gills. Other salamanders, such as the Mexican axolotl, never undergo metamorphosis unless they are exposed to certain chemicals in a laboratory. These amphibians retain many characteristics of larvae for their entire lives, except that they develop reproductive organs. Still others, such as the tiger salamander, metamorphose only if the ponds that they live in become uninhabitable and they must make the transition to land to survive.
Hellbenders are capable of surviving for 25 years in their natural settings, and some fire salamanders have survived as long as 50 years in captivity. The life span of most salamanders in the wild is unknown.
Declining Salamander Populations
alamanders are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems, and the health of local salamander populations often mirrors the health of the habitat as a whole. Evidence suggests that habitat destruction, particularly forest clear-cutting, is severely depleting salamander populations. Especially vulnerable are those salamanders that live in the temperate forests of North America and in tropical forests of Asia and South and Central America, where deforestation is occurring at an alarming rate.
Mysteriously, some salamander populations are declining even in apparently pristine areas that have not been destroyed for human development. Non-native predators and competitive species whose range has been extended by humans may threaten salamander populations. They also appear to suffer at higher than normal rates from diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, or fungi. The chytrid fungus that causes the disease chytridiomycosis affects the skin of amphibians and is a particular threat to salamanders and frogs.
Although no one knows for sure, many researchers believe that the impacts of competitive species and disease are exacerbated by a variety of environmental problems. These problems include pollution and increased levels of ultraviolet light penetrating the atmosphere as a result of the thinning ozone layer. Rapid climate change associated with global warming can also affect local climates where salamanders are adapted to live.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species designates many salamanders as vulnerable to extinction or endangered. Species that are listed as critically endangered include the giant Chinese salamander and the axolotl. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) also recognizes all giant salamander species and the axolotl as endangered and prohibits trade for commercial purposes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists a number of salamanders found in the United States as threatened or endangered species, including the California tiger salamander and the Texas blind salamander.
Scientific classification: Salamanders make up the order Caudata in the class Amphibia. Newts and fire salamanders belong to the family Salamandridae; the crested newt is classified as Triturus cristatus and the fire salamander as Salamandra salamandra. The hellbender, the giant Chinese salamander, and the giant Japanese salamander belong to the family Cryptobranchidae and are classified as Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, Andrias davidianus, and Andrias japonicus, respectively. The smallest known salamander is a member of the lungless salamander family, Plethodontidae, and is classified as Thorius arboreus. The Texas blind salamander is also in the Plethodontidae family and is classified as Eurycea rathbuni. Sirens make up the family Sirenidae; the greater siren is classified as Siren lacertina. Mud puppies belong to the family Protidae; the widest-ranging mud puppy is classified as Necturus maculosus. The tiger salamander and the axolotl belong to the family Ambystomatidae and are classified as Ambystoma tigrinum and Ambystoma mexicanum, respectively.
Source by : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamander
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761558552/salamander.html
Example Photo
READ MORE - Encyclopedia - SALAMANDER - Article and Image
Range and Habitat of Salamanders
Salamanders are found throughout much of the world at altitudes up to 4,000 m (13,000 ft). In the western hemisphere their range spreads across the United States and Canada and extends south through Central America to the northern portion of South America. Salamanders also live in Europe, the Mediterranean area, Africa, and Asia, including the islands of Japan and Taiwan. Salamanders are not found in Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, Madagascar, or Antarctica.
Physical Characteristics of Salamanders
An adult salamander has a slender, elongated body with a long tail, and in most cases, two pairs of legs roughly equal in size. Most salamanders are drab in color, but some, such as fire salamanders, have brilliant yellow, orange, or red markings. The majority of salamanders measure 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) in length, but the smallest known salamander reaches just 2.7 cm (1.1 in), and the Japanese giant salamander grows to 1.5 m (5 ft).
Those salamanders that spend all or part of their lives on land tend to be slight, with small heads, slender bodies, and a sprawling gait that comes from moving the two legs that are diagonally opposite one another at the same time. Aquatic salamanders, such as the amphiuma, are usually larger, and they often have reduced limbs. Some aquatic salamanders, such as the greater siren, have no hind legs at all. The front limbs of most species end in four fingers, and the rear limbs typically end in five toes. Like other amphibians, salamanders do not have claws. Some salamanders can force their ribs through their skin to act as protective barbs, providing a defense against predators.
Salamanders are the only amphibians that have long tails as adults. They use these tails, which are often as long as their bodies, for balance in walking and propulsion in swimming. Many salamanders can shed their tails if a predator threatens them. Once shed, the tail reflexively flails about on the ground and distracts the would-be predator while the salamander slips away and later regenerates a new tail.
Salamanders are also able to regrow limbs that are lost or injured. Scientists are studying the genetic and hormonal processes that allow salamanders to regenerate body parts such as jaws, spinal cords, and brain parts in addition to tails and limbs. Because some of the same genes are present in humans, research into salamanders could lead to medical treatments that would allow humans to regrow or repair damaged organs and limbs.
Like all amphibians, salamanders have delicate, permeable skin through which water and gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, can enter and leave the body. Most adult salamanders have saclike lungs for breathing air and use their permeable skin only as a source of supplemental oxygen. Some species never develop lungs and instead obtain oxygen through gills or through their skin and the mucous membranes of their mouths and throats. Salamanders also have glands in the skin that secrete a thick layer of mucus. On land, this mucus prevents the skin from drying out, and in water, it helps maintain the correct balance of salt and water in salamanders’ body fluids. Other glands in salamander skin secrete toxic poisons. Salamanders equipped with poison-producing skin glands often display bright colors and conspicuous markings, possibly to warn predators that they are poisonous to the touch. Male salamanders commonly have skin glands that produce scent-emitting chemicals called pheromones that play a role in courtship and mating.
Most salamanders have well-developed eyes. They also have nasal sensory organs capable of detecting chemical changes in the environment. These nasal organs serve an important function in feeding, courtship, and locating breeding sites. Their sense of hearing is poor, and salamanders rarely make noise, although some species are known to make faint squeaks or yelps when excited or disturbed.
Diet of Salamanders
Most salamanders are carnivorous—that is, they eat other animals rather than plants. Adult salamanders that live in water prey on the larvae of frogs, known as tadpoles, and various invertebrates, including snails and worms. Some also eat small fish. These salamanders locate prey by smell and ingest it by opening their mouths in the water and sucking in their prey.
Terrestrial salamanders rely on vision to find food. Most are solitary, sit-and-wait opportunists that eat soft-bodied invertebrates, including insects, slugs, and worms. When one of these prey animals unwittingly comes within reach, the salamander rolls its fleshy, sticky tongue out of its mouth to snatch it up. Some tropical salamanders have projectile tongues that they can extrude from their mouths for distances equal to 40 to 80 percent of their total body length to snap up unsuspecting prey.
Many salamanders are nocturnal—that is, they do most of their hunting in the cool, dark hours of night and remain inactive during the day. Those that are active during daylight retreat to the cool depths of bushes and other ground cover during the hottest period of the day. Some groups are active only during certain seasons. When conditions are too cold or too dry for them to muster the energy necessary to find food, these salamanders enter a resting state similar to hibernation. The siren spends much of its time burrowed in the muddy bottom of seasonal ponds and ditches that dry up in the heat of the summer. When the mud and sand starts to dry, the mucous coating on its skin hardens to form a protective cocoon, which enables the siren to survive out of water for many weeks.
Reproduction in Salamanders
For many types of salamanders, mating begins with complex courtship behavior. Some terrestrial male salamanders create scent trails to attract females. Among lungless salamanders of the western hemisphere, males initiate courtship by using their chins to rub the heads of females. As they rub, they secrete chemicals that stimulate the female. Among European newts, such as the crested newt, courtship takes place in water, and during the mating season, males acquire bright colors and intricate tail fins to attract mates.
Among most salamanders, fertilization occurs internally, meaning the egg and sperm unite inside the female’s body. During mating, salamanders use the cloaca, a chamber that opens into the animal’s digestive and urinary tracts as well as their reproductive tracts. Mating pairs of salamanders may position themselves with the muscular openings of their cloacae touching so that the male can transfer sperm directly to the female. Among many terrestrial and aquatic salamanders, males release one or more sperm-filled capsules called spermatophores onto the ground, then attempt to induce a female to pick up the spermatophores with the opening of her cloaca.
Among some very ancient types of salamanders, including hellbenders, fertilization is external. Females of these species deposit eggs in sacs or strings in the water. Male hellbenders release their sperm over the eggs to fertilize them, then guard the eggs until they hatch.
Among salamanders that have internal fertilization, females may either deposit their eggs on land or in water or, as in the fire salamander, retain the eggs within their bodies, eventually giving birth to live young. Among tiger salamanders, females lay eggs in clutches of up to 500 eggs in streams or ponds. Females of other species lay eggs singly or in small clutches at terrestrial sites, such as in rotting logs. Females that lay small clutches typically protect their eggs from hungry predators until hatching occurs.
Life Cycle of Salamanders
The life cycle of salamanders varies greatly among species. All salamanders have a larval stage in which they have external, feathery gills for breathing in water. Among salamanders that lay their eggs on land, the larval stage occurs inside the egg. In salamanders that give birth to live young, the larval stage takes place within the body of the mother. Only some salamander larvae actually live in a body of water such as a pond or stream.
Many salamander larvae undergo a transformation called metamorphosis, in which their bodies change in ways that make them better suited to life on land than life in the water. During metamorphosis, the larvae of most species lose their gills and acquire a pair of saclike lungs. The heart transforms from the two-chambered heart needed to support gills to a three-chambered heart capable of supporting lungs. The larvae also grow limbs, eyelids, and well-developed tongues.
Many larvae undergo metamorphosis in two or three months. Some, including hellbenders, take up to five years to mature. Many salamanders, including mud puppies, undergo partial metamorphosis and as adults retain some larval characteristics, such as gills. Other salamanders, such as the Mexican axolotl, never undergo metamorphosis unless they are exposed to certain chemicals in a laboratory. These amphibians retain many characteristics of larvae for their entire lives, except that they develop reproductive organs. Still others, such as the tiger salamander, metamorphose only if the ponds that they live in become uninhabitable and they must make the transition to land to survive.
Hellbenders are capable of surviving for 25 years in their natural settings, and some fire salamanders have survived as long as 50 years in captivity. The life span of most salamanders in the wild is unknown.
Declining Salamander Populations
alamanders are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems, and the health of local salamander populations often mirrors the health of the habitat as a whole. Evidence suggests that habitat destruction, particularly forest clear-cutting, is severely depleting salamander populations. Especially vulnerable are those salamanders that live in the temperate forests of North America and in tropical forests of Asia and South and Central America, where deforestation is occurring at an alarming rate.
Mysteriously, some salamander populations are declining even in apparently pristine areas that have not been destroyed for human development. Non-native predators and competitive species whose range has been extended by humans may threaten salamander populations. They also appear to suffer at higher than normal rates from diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, or fungi. The chytrid fungus that causes the disease chytridiomycosis affects the skin of amphibians and is a particular threat to salamanders and frogs.
Although no one knows for sure, many researchers believe that the impacts of competitive species and disease are exacerbated by a variety of environmental problems. These problems include pollution and increased levels of ultraviolet light penetrating the atmosphere as a result of the thinning ozone layer. Rapid climate change associated with global warming can also affect local climates where salamanders are adapted to live.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species designates many salamanders as vulnerable to extinction or endangered. Species that are listed as critically endangered include the giant Chinese salamander and the axolotl. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) also recognizes all giant salamander species and the axolotl as endangered and prohibits trade for commercial purposes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists a number of salamanders found in the United States as threatened or endangered species, including the California tiger salamander and the Texas blind salamander.
Scientific classification: Salamanders make up the order Caudata in the class Amphibia. Newts and fire salamanders belong to the family Salamandridae; the crested newt is classified as Triturus cristatus and the fire salamander as Salamandra salamandra. The hellbender, the giant Chinese salamander, and the giant Japanese salamander belong to the family Cryptobranchidae and are classified as Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, Andrias davidianus, and Andrias japonicus, respectively. The smallest known salamander is a member of the lungless salamander family, Plethodontidae, and is classified as Thorius arboreus. The Texas blind salamander is also in the Plethodontidae family and is classified as Eurycea rathbuni. Sirens make up the family Sirenidae; the greater siren is classified as Siren lacertina. Mud puppies belong to the family Protidae; the widest-ranging mud puppy is classified as Necturus maculosus. The tiger salamander and the axolotl belong to the family Ambystomatidae and are classified as Ambystoma tigrinum and Ambystoma mexicanum, respectively.
Source by : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamander
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761558552/salamander.html
Example Photo
2/18/2009
5 Tips For Super Macro Photography - By Shereena Vysakh
Let us take it from the basics of what super macro photography is. Super macro is referred to the photographing of subjects at a ratio of more than 1:1. Normal macro is when we shoot at 1:1 magnification ratio, that is the 1mm of the subject is produced on the sensor as 1mm. Now super macro photography is when we represent 1mm on the subject as more than 1mm on the sensor.
What does super macro photography do?
The photographs become so detailed that you can compare them to looking at an object through a microscope. These photographs have vivid detail of the miniature world. Commercially they are required for text books journals etc. They are also used in advertisements and such promotional materials. Most importantly it allows the photographer to capture a world that is not seen with the naked eye.The image below shows a super macro of a leaf.
How is it done ?
There are mainly four ways that photographers achieve this type of photography.
Super Macro Lens
The easiest and best results are go with using a Macro lens that provides more than 1:1 ratios, a good example would be Canon MP-E 65 mm f/2.8. This lens lets you take up to 5:1 macros. The above said lens is a manual focus lens and costs nearly 900$. More advance lens costs even more.
Diopters on normal macro lens
Another easier method is to use diopters or closeup filters on 1:1 macro lens. This will let u go closer and thus obtain higher magnification. The results will not be as impressive but this is definitely cheaper than buying a lens. This option also reduces number of equipment needed to be carried. The magnification achieved is limited.
Reversing
This is done by reversing ,preferably, a wide angle lens in front of a longer lens. This yields better results than diopters and comparable to dedicated lens but some times results in reduced functionalities like lack of auto focus and so on. This method can yield very high magnification. There will be problems of vignetting in some combinations.
Bellows
This involves loading the lens on a below or using extension tube. Bellows allow variable adjustment but limits mobility. Bellows reduce the amount of light available as the length increases. This is a less preferred methods but some photographers working in studios prefer this method, as they can control the lighting and they don't need mobility.
Now to the 5 tips:-
1. DOF:- Super macro means super importance to DOF, this means u will need to either make really tough decision on where to focus. The fact that most of these setups reduce total light will make it more difficult to working at higher f-stops. One method would be to take multiple images with varying areas in focus and combine them to get the desired image.
2. Lighting:- Most of the above setups will reduce total light available thus, artificial lighting is very important in super macro photography. Use external flashes, it will be convenient to use a ring flash. If there is more light to work with the image can be captured much better. This means that investing in a good lighting device will be worth every penny.
3. Stability:- The high amounts of magnification means that you will need very high stability, this means you will need a very steady tripod for one. The setup is very sensitive due to the high magnification so you will benefit from using a remote release. Another feature you will benefit from would be live view to increase stability.
4. Subject:- Live insects will not make good subject for super macro simply because they keep moving. Good subjects would be dead insects and other such subjects that will not move. Flowers and their interiors make very interesting subjects too. Small stone , twigs etc also have a lot of story to tell. Remember that the possibilities in the miniature world is limitless there are so many things that we can capture, but as mention before lighting is very important.
5. Perspective:- As in any type of photography perspective is important in super macros also. The angle the framing everything counts. When working at high magnification it can be a very precise maneuver that sets it right or makes it all wrong.
The possibilities are limitless so keep in mind these tips and start experimenting.
Some samples of what can be done : -
Visit the Link: http://www.randomequations.com/2008/11/15/5-tips-when-making-a-super-macro-photography-setup/
Shereena Vysakh is a Pro Photography Hobbiest Blogging at RandomEquations
Source by : http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Shereena_Vysakh
READ MORE - 5 Tips For Super Macro Photography - By Shereena Vysakh
What does super macro photography do?
The photographs become so detailed that you can compare them to looking at an object through a microscope. These photographs have vivid detail of the miniature world. Commercially they are required for text books journals etc. They are also used in advertisements and such promotional materials. Most importantly it allows the photographer to capture a world that is not seen with the naked eye.The image below shows a super macro of a leaf.
How is it done ?
There are mainly four ways that photographers achieve this type of photography.
Super Macro Lens
The easiest and best results are go with using a Macro lens that provides more than 1:1 ratios, a good example would be Canon MP-E 65 mm f/2.8. This lens lets you take up to 5:1 macros. The above said lens is a manual focus lens and costs nearly 900$. More advance lens costs even more.
Diopters on normal macro lens
Another easier method is to use diopters or closeup filters on 1:1 macro lens. This will let u go closer and thus obtain higher magnification. The results will not be as impressive but this is definitely cheaper than buying a lens. This option also reduces number of equipment needed to be carried. The magnification achieved is limited.
Reversing
This is done by reversing ,preferably, a wide angle lens in front of a longer lens. This yields better results than diopters and comparable to dedicated lens but some times results in reduced functionalities like lack of auto focus and so on. This method can yield very high magnification. There will be problems of vignetting in some combinations.
Bellows
This involves loading the lens on a below or using extension tube. Bellows allow variable adjustment but limits mobility. Bellows reduce the amount of light available as the length increases. This is a less preferred methods but some photographers working in studios prefer this method, as they can control the lighting and they don't need mobility.
Now to the 5 tips:-
1. DOF:- Super macro means super importance to DOF, this means u will need to either make really tough decision on where to focus. The fact that most of these setups reduce total light will make it more difficult to working at higher f-stops. One method would be to take multiple images with varying areas in focus and combine them to get the desired image.
2. Lighting:- Most of the above setups will reduce total light available thus, artificial lighting is very important in super macro photography. Use external flashes, it will be convenient to use a ring flash. If there is more light to work with the image can be captured much better. This means that investing in a good lighting device will be worth every penny.
3. Stability:- The high amounts of magnification means that you will need very high stability, this means you will need a very steady tripod for one. The setup is very sensitive due to the high magnification so you will benefit from using a remote release. Another feature you will benefit from would be live view to increase stability.
4. Subject:- Live insects will not make good subject for super macro simply because they keep moving. Good subjects would be dead insects and other such subjects that will not move. Flowers and their interiors make very interesting subjects too. Small stone , twigs etc also have a lot of story to tell. Remember that the possibilities in the miniature world is limitless there are so many things that we can capture, but as mention before lighting is very important.
5. Perspective:- As in any type of photography perspective is important in super macros also. The angle the framing everything counts. When working at high magnification it can be a very precise maneuver that sets it right or makes it all wrong.
The possibilities are limitless so keep in mind these tips and start experimenting.
Some samples of what can be done : -
Visit the Link: http://www.randomequations.com/2008/11/15/5-tips-when-making-a-super-macro-photography-setup/
Shereena Vysakh is a Pro Photography Hobbiest Blogging at RandomEquations
Source by : http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Shereena_Vysakh
Photography Article
10 Affordable Gift Ideas For Photographers
By Kevin Downs
While photography equipment is known for being pricey, there are some great gift ideas for individuals who want to buy a nice gift for a photographer without breaking the bank. We have compiled a list of items to make your shopping as easy as possible.
1. Magazine Subscription - Outdoor Photographer is just one of the many photography magazines available, but is a good choice if the photographer enjoys taking picture of nature and landscape. The magazine offers gear reviews, tips for improving your knowledge in both photography and post processing, and provides insight on locations and workshops available. Retail $19.99
2. External Hard Drives - Too many photographers depend on their notebook or desktop to store their files. Not only does this slow down the computer, but it also prevents them from accessing the files if the hard drive fails. An external hard drive will allow you to work faster while providing you with a peace of mind knowing your files are safer. Retail Price $99-$250
3. Flashpoint 42-Inch 5 in 1 Collapsible Disk Reflector - This product is great for adding fill light to your subjects and contains translucent, white, silver, black, and soft gold. This product is easy to breakdown and carry in the field. Retail Price $45
4. Photography Books- There are some great books on photography available at reasonable prices. Pick books that relate to type of photography they enjoy. Also find out if they use Photoshop or another photo editor and see what books are available. John Shaw's Nature Photography Field Guide should be on the bookshelf of every nature photographer. Retail Price $17-$25
5. Digital Photo Frame - The prices have dropped substantially recently without a decrease in quality. We have not found it worth the extra price in most cases to purchase the wireless frame as opposed to one that accepts memory cards or a USB slot. Retail Price $99-$150
6. Memory Cards - It seems every year larger and faster memory cards or available at a fraction of the cost of last year's models. Most photographers always want to upgrade their memory cards for both size and speed. This will require you knowing what kind of memory card their camera utilizes. Retail Price $29-59
7. Photomatix - This software is used to produce High Dynamic Range photography. You can now capture high contract scenes without blowing out the highlights. While there are other programs that do this, Photomatix is the best we have tested to date. Retail Price $99
8. Filters - While most photographers have circular polarizer and ND Grad Filters, some do not carry warming filters or special effect filters. Cokin offers some affordable specialty filters for warming, cooling, and sunsets. It is also important to include a carrying case to prevent the filters from scratches and damage. The Cokin holder isn't necessary as you can simply hold the filter over the lens to achieve the effect you desire.($29-49)
9. Photography Vest - I went through several photography cases before finally settling for a photography vest. It was actually a gift from a friend of mine that is a photographer. I am more efficient now since I can easily have everything organized and accessible. No more forgetting to put something in your camera bag.
10. Subscription to photo.net - While this site is free, a paid membership allows members unlimited gallery uploads, additional photo critique request, a personal imagePRO website, and a favorite image gallery. It is a great way to show off your work and get advice on your pictures. Retail Price $25
Source by : http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Kevin_Downs
READ MORE - Photography Article
By Kevin Downs
While photography equipment is known for being pricey, there are some great gift ideas for individuals who want to buy a nice gift for a photographer without breaking the bank. We have compiled a list of items to make your shopping as easy as possible.
1. Magazine Subscription - Outdoor Photographer is just one of the many photography magazines available, but is a good choice if the photographer enjoys taking picture of nature and landscape. The magazine offers gear reviews, tips for improving your knowledge in both photography and post processing, and provides insight on locations and workshops available. Retail $19.99
2. External Hard Drives - Too many photographers depend on their notebook or desktop to store their files. Not only does this slow down the computer, but it also prevents them from accessing the files if the hard drive fails. An external hard drive will allow you to work faster while providing you with a peace of mind knowing your files are safer. Retail Price $99-$250
3. Flashpoint 42-Inch 5 in 1 Collapsible Disk Reflector - This product is great for adding fill light to your subjects and contains translucent, white, silver, black, and soft gold. This product is easy to breakdown and carry in the field. Retail Price $45
4. Photography Books- There are some great books on photography available at reasonable prices. Pick books that relate to type of photography they enjoy. Also find out if they use Photoshop or another photo editor and see what books are available. John Shaw's Nature Photography Field Guide should be on the bookshelf of every nature photographer. Retail Price $17-$25
5. Digital Photo Frame - The prices have dropped substantially recently without a decrease in quality. We have not found it worth the extra price in most cases to purchase the wireless frame as opposed to one that accepts memory cards or a USB slot. Retail Price $99-$150
6. Memory Cards - It seems every year larger and faster memory cards or available at a fraction of the cost of last year's models. Most photographers always want to upgrade their memory cards for both size and speed. This will require you knowing what kind of memory card their camera utilizes. Retail Price $29-59
7. Photomatix - This software is used to produce High Dynamic Range photography. You can now capture high contract scenes without blowing out the highlights. While there are other programs that do this, Photomatix is the best we have tested to date. Retail Price $99
8. Filters - While most photographers have circular polarizer and ND Grad Filters, some do not carry warming filters or special effect filters. Cokin offers some affordable specialty filters for warming, cooling, and sunsets. It is also important to include a carrying case to prevent the filters from scratches and damage. The Cokin holder isn't necessary as you can simply hold the filter over the lens to achieve the effect you desire.($29-49)
9. Photography Vest - I went through several photography cases before finally settling for a photography vest. It was actually a gift from a friend of mine that is a photographer. I am more efficient now since I can easily have everything organized and accessible. No more forgetting to put something in your camera bag.
10. Subscription to photo.net - While this site is free, a paid membership allows members unlimited gallery uploads, additional photo critique request, a personal imagePRO website, and a favorite image gallery. It is a great way to show off your work and get advice on your pictures. Retail Price $25
Source by : http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Kevin_Downs
Techniques Photography
10 Digital Photography Techniques
by : JR Lang
Digital photography has revolutionized picture taking, no more old school film and driving to the drug store and waiting for film to develop. Digital cameras allow the photographer the luxury of concentrating on taking pictures and simply delete away those that are not up to standards.
Prior to looking at effective digital photography techniques, it is important to understand the difference between the old school film cameras and the new digital technology. Same as the old school film SLR (single reflex lens) cameras, digital SLR or DSLR (digital single reflex lens) camera use lenses and mirror. But instead of a film that records the image, a DSLR camera uses light sensor chips and digital memory. In other words, a DSLR camera is the computerized version of the traditional SLR camera.
Using these simple and effective digital photography techniques can aid those taking photographs with a DSLR cameras in capturing the best images using the new art of digital photography.
10 Digital Photography Techniques
1. Probably the greatest feature of digital cameras is the fabulous LCD screen that allows for real time preview of pictures as you take them. One of the best and most practical digital photography techniques is to make sure to utilize the LCD to its fullest potential by previewing each each picture and making sure it is perfect, if it's not just click delete it and re shoot.
2. Try to get a digital camera with image stabilization. If you don't have that feature then here is a digital photography technique to get clearer pictures without any blur. Hold your hand steady when taking pictures to prevent it from shaking and moving. Also, it is better to hold your eye up to the optical viewfinder when taking pictures, rather than the electronic viewfinder. This helps you to see exactly what your capturing and also helps to keep the camera steady when taking pictures.
3. Flash seems to be a challenge for most beginner photographers. Most flash technology can only light up a up a subject within an average of 10 to 15 feet. Make sure to move in closer, or add more light to the subject area.
4. Because digital cameras can take slightly longer to focus than film cameras, a good digital photography tip to avoid blurry and out-of-focus shots is to half-depress the shutter button until the camera has had time to lock the focus, and then completely press the button to take the actual shot.
5. The law of optics remains the same whether using new digital photography technology or an old camera. For instance, if the sun is behind an image, the picture will be silhouette. If light is in front of the image, the picture will appear squint.
6. Another digital photography technique is when using a polarizer, be sure that the source of light is perpendicular to the object. If you do not have polarizing filter capability then a good digital photography technique is to use a quality pair of sunglasses. Place the sunglasses as close to the camera lens as possible, then check their position in the LCD viewfinder to make sure you don't have the the sunglasses rims in the picture.
7. Instead of film, digital photography uses memory cards to save shots. A good digital photography technique that can prevent lots of regret is to always have back up memory with you. There is nothing worse than missing that great shot because there is no more storage available in your camera.
8. A good digital photography technique for shooting bright landscapes and outdoor portraits is to change your white balance setting from auto to cloudy, this will yield brighter and clearer shots. This will give a warming filter on your camera and increases the reds and yellows resulting in richer and brighter pictures.
9. Zoom in to emphasize a certain asset or characteristic of the subject being captured. Avoid getting too large of a focus shot, evaluate what you want to capture and focus in on that image, avoiding backgrounds like buildings and landscape, this will give you clearer and better pictures of the object you want.
10. Practice is probably the best tip. The best digital photography technique is to practice using your camera. Get to know it and all the controls and what they do. Take lots of pictures and analyze what works best with your camera and soon you will be an expert with your own list of digital photography techniques.
Digital cameras have really simplified photography and made picture taking so much more mobile and convenient. And employing some of these digital photography techniques will deliver the best pictures of life's memories.
Source by : http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=JR_Lang
READ MORE - Techniques Photography
by : JR Lang
Digital photography has revolutionized picture taking, no more old school film and driving to the drug store and waiting for film to develop. Digital cameras allow the photographer the luxury of concentrating on taking pictures and simply delete away those that are not up to standards.
Prior to looking at effective digital photography techniques, it is important to understand the difference between the old school film cameras and the new digital technology. Same as the old school film SLR (single reflex lens) cameras, digital SLR or DSLR (digital single reflex lens) camera use lenses and mirror. But instead of a film that records the image, a DSLR camera uses light sensor chips and digital memory. In other words, a DSLR camera is the computerized version of the traditional SLR camera.
Using these simple and effective digital photography techniques can aid those taking photographs with a DSLR cameras in capturing the best images using the new art of digital photography.
10 Digital Photography Techniques
1. Probably the greatest feature of digital cameras is the fabulous LCD screen that allows for real time preview of pictures as you take them. One of the best and most practical digital photography techniques is to make sure to utilize the LCD to its fullest potential by previewing each each picture and making sure it is perfect, if it's not just click delete it and re shoot.
2. Try to get a digital camera with image stabilization. If you don't have that feature then here is a digital photography technique to get clearer pictures without any blur. Hold your hand steady when taking pictures to prevent it from shaking and moving. Also, it is better to hold your eye up to the optical viewfinder when taking pictures, rather than the electronic viewfinder. This helps you to see exactly what your capturing and also helps to keep the camera steady when taking pictures.
3. Flash seems to be a challenge for most beginner photographers. Most flash technology can only light up a up a subject within an average of 10 to 15 feet. Make sure to move in closer, or add more light to the subject area.
4. Because digital cameras can take slightly longer to focus than film cameras, a good digital photography tip to avoid blurry and out-of-focus shots is to half-depress the shutter button until the camera has had time to lock the focus, and then completely press the button to take the actual shot.
5. The law of optics remains the same whether using new digital photography technology or an old camera. For instance, if the sun is behind an image, the picture will be silhouette. If light is in front of the image, the picture will appear squint.
6. Another digital photography technique is when using a polarizer, be sure that the source of light is perpendicular to the object. If you do not have polarizing filter capability then a good digital photography technique is to use a quality pair of sunglasses. Place the sunglasses as close to the camera lens as possible, then check their position in the LCD viewfinder to make sure you don't have the the sunglasses rims in the picture.
7. Instead of film, digital photography uses memory cards to save shots. A good digital photography technique that can prevent lots of regret is to always have back up memory with you. There is nothing worse than missing that great shot because there is no more storage available in your camera.
8. A good digital photography technique for shooting bright landscapes and outdoor portraits is to change your white balance setting from auto to cloudy, this will yield brighter and clearer shots. This will give a warming filter on your camera and increases the reds and yellows resulting in richer and brighter pictures.
9. Zoom in to emphasize a certain asset or characteristic of the subject being captured. Avoid getting too large of a focus shot, evaluate what you want to capture and focus in on that image, avoiding backgrounds like buildings and landscape, this will give you clearer and better pictures of the object you want.
10. Practice is probably the best tip. The best digital photography technique is to practice using your camera. Get to know it and all the controls and what they do. Take lots of pictures and analyze what works best with your camera and soon you will be an expert with your own list of digital photography techniques.
Digital cameras have really simplified photography and made picture taking so much more mobile and convenient. And employing some of these digital photography techniques will deliver the best pictures of life's memories.
Source by : http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=JR_Lang
Digital Photography
How to Get Started in Digital Photography
by : Robert Provencher
Whether you are a seasoned photographer or a novice, or just someone who want to do photography as a hobby, the first thing you need to be clear on is, what exactly is digital photography?
Digital photography is the use of a digital camera to capture / take an image that can be viewed on a computer screen. The main benefits of digital photography are:
You can see the result of your work right away
You can delete unwanted photographs instantly
You can easily and cheaply edit your photographs by improving the tone, retouching some areas, adding background etc.
Digital photographs can be send instantly via email
Except for batteries you do not need to constantly buy items to use in digital photography such as films.
Next you will need to decide on the type of digital camera to buy. This will of course depend on the following factors:
How much money you can spend
What is your goal, that is, why do you need to take digital pictures: business, hobby, personal
What functionality do you want with your camera
There are two basic types of digital camera, the DSLR (Digital Single Lens Reflex) and automatic. If you are really serious about digital photography you will want to get yourself a DSLR since this type of camera gives you more control.
In making a decision on type of digital camera also explore the types of storage media available and see which one may be best for you. The two most popular storage media for digital camera are flashcards (digital film) and microdrives. The storage media in a digital camera is really important; it is what holds the pictures. It is important to read reviews and talk to other users of digital cameras to determine the type of memory, and the capacity of the memory (how much images can it hold) you will need. I recommend flash cards since they have no moving parts and are more reliable.
After you have decided on the type of digital camera to purchase, you must now look at the other types of equipment you need to make a success of digital photography. A good personal computer and printer is needed, especially if you do not wish to pay to have your pictures printed elsewhere.
Your computer is important because this is where you will download, store, edit, review and any number of other things to your photographs. If you are using an older computer, make sure your operating system is compatible with the camera and software you will be using.
If you plan to do this professionally, you will also need to invest in software to help you get the most out of your digital photographs. Software used by professional digital photographers include Adobe Photoshop and ImageReady.
How to take great digital photographs
There are seven main steps to ensuing that you take professional looking digital photographs. These are:
Subject: Pose your subject with care. Even with the best software some faults cannot be totally corrected.
Lighting: Right light is important in digital photography as the appearance of your subject will be affected if lighting is wrong. Too harsh a light will show up wrinkles
ISO calibration: To ensure that your pictures don’t come out looking like they were done by a total novice, check to ensure that your camera is properly calibrated. Getting the right camera setting can be the difference between brilliant pictures and blah.
Composition: Good photography is an art form, so your background is as important as your subject. Too much clutter in your picture will make the result look unprofessional.
White balance: If you want to ensure that your photograph has natural looking colors, then make sure to manually set the white balance.
Don’t be afraid to experiment: Do creative crazy things with your camera, the results may just surprise you. Remember, with a digital camera you can always delete the images if you do not want to keep them.
Zoom and flash: Practice using these features until you find what works best in different situations.
One point to remember about digital photography is that it cannot turn a lousy photography into a professional overnight, but with practice and learning you can become good at photography using a digital camera. And, with enough talent, business savvy, luck, downright determination and love of the craft you might even be able to turn it into a business venture.
Robert Provencher has been a professional portrait and wedding photographer for over 25 years. He has trained hundreds of professional photographers throughout North America in live workshops and through his online forum. Robert has authored several manuals on digital photography and photogaphy marketing. http://www.nobsphotosuccess.com/
Source by : http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Robert_Provencher
READ MORE - Digital Photography
by : Robert Provencher
Whether you are a seasoned photographer or a novice, or just someone who want to do photography as a hobby, the first thing you need to be clear on is, what exactly is digital photography?
Digital photography is the use of a digital camera to capture / take an image that can be viewed on a computer screen. The main benefits of digital photography are:
You can see the result of your work right away
You can delete unwanted photographs instantly
You can easily and cheaply edit your photographs by improving the tone, retouching some areas, adding background etc.
Digital photographs can be send instantly via email
Except for batteries you do not need to constantly buy items to use in digital photography such as films.
Next you will need to decide on the type of digital camera to buy. This will of course depend on the following factors:
How much money you can spend
What is your goal, that is, why do you need to take digital pictures: business, hobby, personal
What functionality do you want with your camera
There are two basic types of digital camera, the DSLR (Digital Single Lens Reflex) and automatic. If you are really serious about digital photography you will want to get yourself a DSLR since this type of camera gives you more control.
In making a decision on type of digital camera also explore the types of storage media available and see which one may be best for you. The two most popular storage media for digital camera are flashcards (digital film) and microdrives. The storage media in a digital camera is really important; it is what holds the pictures. It is important to read reviews and talk to other users of digital cameras to determine the type of memory, and the capacity of the memory (how much images can it hold) you will need. I recommend flash cards since they have no moving parts and are more reliable.
After you have decided on the type of digital camera to purchase, you must now look at the other types of equipment you need to make a success of digital photography. A good personal computer and printer is needed, especially if you do not wish to pay to have your pictures printed elsewhere.
Your computer is important because this is where you will download, store, edit, review and any number of other things to your photographs. If you are using an older computer, make sure your operating system is compatible with the camera and software you will be using.
If you plan to do this professionally, you will also need to invest in software to help you get the most out of your digital photographs. Software used by professional digital photographers include Adobe Photoshop and ImageReady.
How to take great digital photographs
There are seven main steps to ensuing that you take professional looking digital photographs. These are:
Subject: Pose your subject with care. Even with the best software some faults cannot be totally corrected.
Lighting: Right light is important in digital photography as the appearance of your subject will be affected if lighting is wrong. Too harsh a light will show up wrinkles
ISO calibration: To ensure that your pictures don’t come out looking like they were done by a total novice, check to ensure that your camera is properly calibrated. Getting the right camera setting can be the difference between brilliant pictures and blah.
Composition: Good photography is an art form, so your background is as important as your subject. Too much clutter in your picture will make the result look unprofessional.
White balance: If you want to ensure that your photograph has natural looking colors, then make sure to manually set the white balance.
Don’t be afraid to experiment: Do creative crazy things with your camera, the results may just surprise you. Remember, with a digital camera you can always delete the images if you do not want to keep them.
Zoom and flash: Practice using these features until you find what works best in different situations.
One point to remember about digital photography is that it cannot turn a lousy photography into a professional overnight, but with practice and learning you can become good at photography using a digital camera. And, with enough talent, business savvy, luck, downright determination and love of the craft you might even be able to turn it into a business venture.
Robert Provencher has been a professional portrait and wedding photographer for over 25 years. He has trained hundreds of professional photographers throughout North America in live workshops and through his online forum. Robert has authored several manuals on digital photography and photogaphy marketing. http://www.nobsphotosuccess.com/
Source by : http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Robert_Provencher
2/03/2009
10 Animals in the world were similar to the face of humankind
1. "The Hybrid Fish"
2. Stink Bug
3. "Death's Head Hawk" Moth
4. Heike Crab
5. Sheild Bug
6. axolotl,
7. Eucorysses grandis
8. Another stink bug
9. Green Shield Bug
10. stink bug from Singapore
The Strange and Unique Statue in the World
1. Reykjavik[Islandia]
2. In front of the Ernst & Young building [Los Angeles]
3. Terdapat di Praha[Ceko]
4. A contemporary representation of Charles La Trobe in central Melbourne [This temporary installation was removed at the end of June 2006 and has been acquired by La Trobe University].
5. Stockholm[Sweden]
6. Cupid di Ginza, Tokyo[Japan]
7. [Singapore]
8. "The Awakening" di Haines Point Park, Washington, D.C.[USA]
9. "Green giants" di Sylt[Jerman]
10. "The passing" di Wroclaw[Polandia]
11. "Desperate Dan" di Dundee[Scotlandia]
12. "The Virgin Mother" di NYC[USA]
13. Di Berlin[Jerman]
14. "UFO has landed" Di Utrecht[Belanda]
15. Unknown
16. [Salt Lake City]
17. Statue in the Guadalquivir river, near La Mezquita, [Cordoba, Spain]
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